The+Impact+of+the+Spanish-American+War

= = =The Background =

On January 25, 1898, the United States Navy battleship USS //Maine // sailed into the harbor of Havana, Cuba. Cuba was in the midst of a civil war, fighting for independence from Spain since 1895. The United States was particularly involved in the affairs of the island located just 90 miles off the coast of Florida. The United States supported the Cubans in the affair, due to American economic investments in Cuba. The //Maine // was sent to guard Americans and their possessions, but also became a grand display of the United States’ power.

In the evening of February 15, 1898, “[t]he city shook to a terrific explosion,” wrote New York Herald correspondent Walter Scott Meriwether, as the entire electricity supply of Havana went out. There had been an explosion on the //Maine //. 266 of the 328 sailors on board died either directly or as a result. Two reports of the explosion were filed, one by the U.S. and one by Spain. While the American report claimed that the //Maine // was sunk by Spanish submarine mines, the Spanish report (which proved to be the correct one in the future) said that it was an internal fire that lead to a large explosion. The press and some of the government blew the less likely cause way out of proportion, and as the same people had already made America "mad for war," a war against Spain was backed by a large amount of the population.

**The War **

 On March 29, 1898, the United States demanded that Spain allow negotiations between the Spanish and Cubans, and that Spain end the concentration of Cubans into //reconcentrado// camps. Spain agreed to the terms but balked at the American demand to surrender its arms. Unhappy with this response, President William McKinley asked Congress to allow him to take the necessary measures to end the conflict and establish the freedom of Cuba on April 11, 1898. After hearing this news, Spain declared war on April 24, 1898, and the United States subsequently declared war in response on April 25. Before the war had even begun, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey to prepare for battle against the Spanish fleet in the Philippines. When the Navy Secretary John D. Long found out about this, he immediately informed President McKinley, although McKinley let it stand, as he knew a war was coming. When the war was declared, Dewey carried out his orders and sailed into the fortified harbor of Manila on May 1, 1898 and destroyed the Spanish fleet without losing a single American life. After the battle, though, America did not control Manila, and Dewey and his forces ended up having to wait in the harbor until August 13, 1898 (one day after the cease-fire had been signed), when American reinforcements finally showed up and captured Manila with help from Filipino insurgents.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6pt;">Soon after the war had started, Spain sent a fleet of old warships to protect Cuba. Americans thought much more of this than it really was, and many panicked and abandoned the eastern seaboard. However, when the Spanish fleet sailed into the Santiago harbor in Cuba, it was easily blockaded by the powerful American fleet. Soon after, a full-scale American invasion took place, though it was very confused and disorganized. Eventually, however, an organized force landed in Cuba sometime around the middle of June and started to take over. They met little opposition, though some fighting broke out on July 1 at El Caney and Kettle Hill. The Rough Riders, led by Colonel Leonard Wood and Colonel Teddy Roosevelt, attacked and won, with a lot of support from two strong black regiments. The Rough Riders suffered a lot of casualties, but they won and took over the area. The Spanish Fleet left the Santiago Harbor on July 3, 1898, knowing they would lose if they tried to fight. America then went to attack Puerto Rico, and there was even less resistance than in Cuba. <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6pt;">The war lasted less than four months. Spain initially proposed peace talks near the end of July 1898. On August 12, 1898, around 4:30 in the afternoon, American Secretary of State William R. Day and French ambassador Jules Cambon, acting for Spain, signed a peace agreement in Washington D.C. The Spanish offered Cuba to the United States, which the Americans accepted, though the U.S. promised the Cubans that it had no intention of controlling their island forever. President McKinley suggested that Spain cede Puerto Rico and Guam as well and allow the United States to sort out the state of affairs in the Philippines.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6pt;"> After the signing of the armistice, however, there were two months of intense negotiations in Paris about the fate of the Spanish Empire's colonies. Spain was attempting to transfer its Cuban debts to the United States, which the U.S. staunchly refuted. The Spanish also claimed that they did not need to cede Manila to the United States, as it had been occupied after the cease-fire had been agreed to. While the United States and Spain negotiated the terms of peace in Paris, there was a fierce debate in America on the subject of imperialism. Many prominent Americans choose sides and offered reasons for or against possession of Spanish territories. President McKinley supported American rule of these colonies as he opposed allowing Spain to maintain control, wanted to prevent other imperial powers from seizing them, and did not believe Filipinos were fit to govern themselves after centuries of colonial rule. McKinley wanted the United States to maintain all land that it currently held until an agreement with Spain was reached. McKinley also decided that once the negotiations had been concluded, the United States would decide for itself, and keep as much as it wanted. However, later in the negotiations process, in late October, McKinley reached the conclusion on the Philippines that "There was nothing left for us to do but take them all, and educate the Filipinos and uplift and civilize and Christianize them..." Teddy Roosevelt argued that imperialism was beneficial to the nation, as it would revitalize and energize the nation, while maintaining alertness and health. American public support began to favor annexation of the Philippines. Powerful newspapers and business leaders, as well as religious missionary groups, increasingly voiced their desire to imperialize. However, they met significant opposition, as large gatherings of anti-imperialists sprung up all over the country. The anti-imperialist argument was characterized by a speaker in Boston who asked his audience "Is the commandment 'Thou shalt not steal' qualified by the proviso 'unless it is necessary?'" On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, which forced Spain to cede Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States, as well as the Philippines for $20 million. However, there was a strong opposition in the Senate, and the Treaty of Paris wasn't ratified in America until February 6, 1899.

=<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 14.25pt;">The Impacts = <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6pt; text-align: center;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Although the United States eventually decided to possess Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, this action was the most significant and one of the final acts of American imperialism. However, the United States had firmly established itself as a world power, defeating a declining empire and claiming the kingdom’s colonies for itself. The U.S. gained respect from established European powers, including Britain, France and Russia. The United States became embroiled in Far Eastern politics with the acquisition of the Philippines.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The relatively easy war victory also lifted American spirits. New military-style music – including that by John Phillip Sousa – became popular. In the first war since the Civil War, the United States took a step towards becoming //united.// The historic tensions between northerners and southerners eased as they fought alongside each other.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The United States only sustained 379 battle deaths during the course of the war (after the explosion of the USS //Maine//), but more than 5,000 members of the armed forces died from disease or nonfighting causes during the same time period.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The events of the war highlighted the need for a Central American canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The USS //Oregon// had been forced to begin the extremely long journey around the tip of South America to reach the fighting in the Caribbean from its base in San Francisco.

<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The American successes of the war also revealed its military weaknesses. The United States military was poorly organized and had an inadequate supply system. Health and medical services were underdeveloped. The U.S. had battle weaknesses as well. The infantry had good fighting abilities and staged successful battle campaigns, but artillery was ineffective. The Navy won victories, but against a feeble opponent. The battles revealed that American ships had insufficient armor, and moved too slowly. In addition, American soldiers shot very poorly. The naval board of officers examined the wreckage of Spanish ships and found that only 122 shots had been on target out of 9,433 fired, an astounding 1.2% shooting percentage. The Philippine Insurrection, started in 1899, was a direct result of the Spanish-American War. When the Americans and Spanish were negotiating after the cease-fire, Filipinos were upset to be unrepresented. The United States acquired the Philippines from Spain for $20 million, and native Filipinos expected independence. However, the United States feared that allowing the country to rule itself would cause it to lapse into disarray. American troops continued to occupy the Philippines and tensions rose between the army and the Filipino insurgents. On the night of February 4, 1899, fighting broke out between Filipino and American forces, when American troops tried to capture insurgents within Filipino camps, causing shots to be exchanged. Over 2,000 insurgents were killed, compared to only 59 Americans. By 1900, there were over 65,000 U.S. military personnel in the Philippines, but the war was not a major issue in the election in the same year. The two sides fought in guerilla warfare until the Americans finally turned the tide in their favor by capturing the Filipino rebel leader, Emilio Aguinaldo. Approximately 20,000 Filipino insurgents were killed and another 200,000-600,000 citizens died as a result of the insurrection. American losses were 7,000 of the total of 126,000 troops. During its possession of the Philippines, the U.S. spent millions of dollars to improve the Philippines’ infrastructure. English became the second language after an excellent education system was established. However, neither side enjoyed the relationship much. America did not receive much for all of the money it spent, besides some trade partnerships, while the Filipino people longed for freedom. The United States controlled the Philippines until 1942, when they were invaded by the Japanese during World War II. In 1944, the U.S. recaptured the islands, and granted them independence two years later on July 4, 1946.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Spain left Cuba by January 1899, but the United States army occupied the island in an attempt to make the Cubans prepared for independence and self-rule. Although many Cubans lacked faith in the American promise of future freedom, they still cooperated with the United States. In 1900, a convention was held to establish a constitution for Cuba, and included in the document was a provision that gave the United States a long-term naval base at Guantanamo Bay, and the right to intervene in future conflicts to maintain the independence of Cuba. During the occupation, the army also managed to defeat what had caused the majority of fatalities during the war: yellow fever. A Cuban physician, Carlos J. Finley, proposed and proved that mosquitos carried the disease. After the American attack on mosquito breeding grounds, the number of yellow fever cases in Havana dropped from 1,400 the previous year to only 37 in 1901. In 1902, Cuba became independent, although included in the treaty was the Platt Amendment, which gave the United States the ability to supervise Cuban affairs. Despite Cuban protests, this inclusion partially prevented other world powers from seizing an island so close to America. The United States only exercised the powers given to it in the Platt Amendment once, in 1906, before it was repealed in 1934 due to Cuban protest. The U.S. also forced the Cubans to agree to regulation by America to prevent Cuba from taking action that would compromise its independence and acquiring debt past the American-judged resource levels.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Following the war, Puerto Rico was in an odd position, as it wasn’t a state or territory, but was unlikely to gain independence. In 1900, under the Foraker Act, Puerto Ricans were granted some self-government, and they later received American citizenship in 1917.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">References =

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Golay, Michael. "Prologue: Death of a Battleship." The Spanish-American War. Ed. John Bowman. New York: Facts on File, 1995. VII-XII. Print. America at War. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Golay, Michael. "Puerto Rico and the Philippines." The Spanish-American War. Ed. John Bowman. New York: Facts on File, 1995. 92. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Golay, Michael. "The Battle for Empire." The Spanish-American War. Ed. John Bowman. New York: Facts on File, 1995. 93-104. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kennedy, David M. "Empire and Expansion." The American Pageant: a History of the Republic. 13th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. 626-51. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kohler, David R., and James W. Wensyel. "America's First Southeast Asian War: The Phillipine Insurrection." Portrait of America. By Stephen B. Oates and Charles J. . Errico. 9th ed. Vol. 2. Boston Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 2007. 87-98. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Wickersham, Geoff. The Great Debate Over Imperialism. 15 Feb. 2011. Class Notes. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Wickersham, Geoff. Why Did Americas Go to War in 1898? 15 Feb. 2011. Class Notes.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Image Sources:
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Depiction of Battle: [|metterhslibrary.pbworks.com] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> USS //Maine// Explosion: []